By Z. Yussuf. Spartanburg Methodist College. 2017.

Unlike palms and fingers of the hand generic benicar 10mg with amex, soles of the feet discount benicar 10mg amex, external geni- other cutaneous receptors, free nerve endings exhibit little accom- talia, and breasts. They respond to heavy pressures, generally modation, so impulses are relayed continuously to the CNS as long those that are constantly applied. Muscle spasms, muscle fatigue, or an inadequate supply of blood to an organ may also cause pain. Organs of Ruffini Impulses for pain are conducted to the spinal cord through sen- sory neurons. The pain sensations are then conducted to the thala- The organs of Ruffini are encapsulated nerve endings that are mus along the lateral spinothalamic tract of the spinal cord, and from found in the deep layers of the dermis and in subcutaneous tissue, there to the somatesthetic area of the cerebral cortex. Although an where they respond to deep continuous pressure and to stretch. The sensation of pain can be clinically classified as somatic pain or visceral pain. Stimulation of the cutaneous pain recep- Bulbs of Krause tors results in the perception of superficial somatic pain. Deep so- The bulbs of Krause are thought to be a variation of Meissner’s matic pain comes from stimulation of receptors in skeletal corpuscles. They are most abundant in the mucous membranes, muscles, joints, and tendons. Stimulation of the receptors within the viscera causes the Historically, both the organs of Ruffini and the bulbs of perception of visceral pain. Through precise neural pathways, Krause have been considered to be thermoreceptors—the former the brain is able to perceive the area of stimulation and project the pain sensation back to that area.

When strongly stimulated by tion have shown that reticular neurons are sensory or cortical input benicar 10 mg sale, the organism sud- excitedmorebysensory(pain) benicar 20 mg,acousticand denly becomes fully alert, a prerequisite for vestibular stimuli than by optic stimuli. Upon electrical Other afferent fibers originate from the stimulation of the reticular formation, this cerebral cortex, the cerebellum, the red nu- wake-up function can be objectively assessed cleus, and the pallidum. Bundles of the reticulothalamic fasciculus ascend to the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus (truncothalamus) (p. Fiber bundles from the midbrain termi- nate in the oral hypothalamus and in the septum. Groups of neurons regulate respi- Kahle, Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. Reticular Formation 147 A Extent and organization of the reticular formation in humans (according to Olszewski) 2 3 1 B Neuron with branching dendrites; reticular formation in the rat (ac- cording to Scheibel and Scheibel) 7 5 6 4 C Respiratory center in the brain D Cardiovascular center in the brain stem of the monkey (according to stem of the cat (according to Beaton and Magoun) Alexander) Kahle, Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Vol. The differ- ences refer not only to the individual areas Different regions of the brain stem are but also to the localization of enzyme activ- characterized by different contents in itywithinthecellbodies(somatictype)orin chemical substances. The substance between the cell can be demonstrated by quantitative bodies, which appears amorphous in Nissl- chemical analysis after homogenization of stained material, is called the neuropil. It the brain tissue, or by treating histological consists mainly of dendrites and also of sections with certain chemicals that make it axonsandglialprocesses. Themajorityofall possible to show the exact localization of a synaptic contacts are found in the neuropil. The methods com- Thedistributioninthemedullaoblongataof plement each other. By means of the Berlin blue reac- bolicenzymewithinthetissue:intheoculo- tion, a high iron content can be demon- motor nucleus (C6), its activity in the peri- strated in the substantia nigra (A1) and in karya and in the neuropil is high, while it is the pallidum, while a lower iron content is low at both locations in the solitary nucleus found in the red nucleus (A2), in the dentate (C7).

Following a pudendal nerve block purchase benicar 10mg with mastercard,an episiotomy may be and the pubic arch and crus of the clitoris of the female order benicar 40 mg on-line. This done during childbirth to accommodate the head of an emerging fetus muscle assists the erection of the penis and clitoris during sex- with minimal tearing of the tissues. Muscular System © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Companies, 2001 Chapter 9 Muscular System 261 (a) (b) Pubococcygeus Symphysis pubis Levator ani Iliococcygeus Urogenital diaphragm Urethra Vagina Obturator canal Anal canal Obturator internus Ischial spine Coccygeus Coccyx Piriformis Ilium Sacroiliac articulation Sacrum (c) FIGURE 9. Muscles of the Vertebral Column ready been described as a long, straplike muscle of the anterior abdominal wall. The extensor muscles located on the posterior The strong, complex muscles of the vertebral column are side of the vertebral column have to be stronger than the flexors adapted to provide support and movement in resistance to the because extension (such as lifting an object) is in opposition to effect of gravity. The extensor muscles consist of a superficial group and a The vertebral column can be flexed, extended, hyperex- deep group. Only some of the muscles of the vertebral column tended, rotated, and laterally flexed (right or left). Muscular System © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Companies, 2001 262 Unit 4 Support and Movement FIGURE 9. The superficial neck muscles and erector spinae group of muscles are illustrated on the right, and the deep neck and back muscles are illustrated on the left. A heavy object should not be lifted with the vertebral column flexed; instead, the hip and knee joints should be actually consists of three groups of muscles: the iliocostalis, flexed so that the pelvic and leg muscles can aid in the task. Each Pregnancy may also put a strain on the erector spinae mus- of these groups, in turn, consists of overlapping slips of muscle. Pregnant women will try to counterbalance the effect of a pro- The iliocostalis is the most lateral group, the longissimus is inter- truding abdomen by hyperextending the vertebral column. This results in an exaggerated lumbar curvature, strained muscles, and a mediate in position, and the spinalis, in the medial position, peculiar gait. Muscular System © The McGraw−Hill Anatomy, Sixth Edition Companies, 2001 Chapter 9 Muscular System 263 TABLE 9.

Examples include the knee buy 10 mg benicar overnight delivery, the humeroulnar articulation displaced water in a sealed vacuum tube makes this sound as it hits against the glass wall generic benicar 20mg line. Popping your knuckles does not cause arthri- within the elbow, and the joints between the phalanges. Pivot The articular cartilage that caps the articular surface of each bone and the synovial fluid that circulates through the joint The movement at a pivot joint is limited to rotation about a cen- during movement are protective features of synovial joints. In this type of articulation, the articular surface on one serve to minimize friction and cushion the articulating bones. Should trauma or disease render either of them nonfunctional, the two articu- bone is conical or rounded and fits into a depression on another lating bones will come in contact. Examples are the proximal articulation of the type of arthritis will develop within the joint. These closed sacs are com- monly located between muscles, or in areas where a tendon Condyloid passes over a bone. They function to cushion certain muscles and A condyloid articulation is structured so that an oval,convex ar- assist the movement of tendons or muscles over bony or ligamen- ticular surface of one bone fits into a concave depression on an- tous surfaces. This permits angular movement in two surrounds and lubricates the tendons of certain muscles, particu- directions,as in up-and-down and side-to-side motions. The radiocarpal joint of the wrist and the metacarpophalangeal joints are examples. Improperly fitted shoes or inappropriate shoes can cause joint related problems. People who perpetually wear high-heeled shoes often have backaches and leg aches because their posture Saddle has to counteract the forward tilt of their bodies when standing or walking. Their knees are excessively flexed, and their spine is thrust Each articular process of a saddle joint has a concave surface in forward at the lumbar curvature in order to maintain balance.